Quantitative Research Book

Chapter One

BASICS OF TECHNICAL WRITING AND THESIS WRITING

This chapter will focus on the mechanics on how to develop a thesis and made simple for easy understanding of the processes. Many students are confronted with tasks that demand good writing skills. They need guidance on haw to go about the complex job of writing a thesis or dissertation. This chapter presents as a Guide for students.

Thesis Writing is subsumed under Technical Writing. All professional fields require technical documents that help readers perform tasks and understand specific tasks. As mentioned by some authors, thesis is classified under technical writing as it provides vital information to specific readers.

Technical Writing refers to the provision of specific information to clearly identified readers who will use the information for a specific purpose.

KEY FEATURES OF TECHNICAL WRITING

Three Elements of Technical Writing.

The elements are reader, purpose and writing situation. The reader seeks information for a specific purpose. The purpose is to design a document that will serve the reader's need and help the reader understand the information efficiently. The writing situation consist of both reader and purpose, as well as such factors as the sponsoring organization's size, budget, ethics, deadlines, policies, competition and priorities.

Three General Stages of Technical Writing.

The stages are planning, multiple drafting and revising and editing. Planning- a writer analyzes the reader, purpose and writing situation; gathers information and tentatively organizes the document. All these may recur many times during the writing.

Revising and editing- it takes place throughout the writing process but particularly after you have begun drafting, read your draft and rethink the following elements: content- do you need more facts? Are your facts relevant for the reader and purpose? Organization- have you grouped the information into topics? Have you put the details in an order that readers will find easy to understand and use? Headings- have you written descriptive headings that will guide your readers to specific information?, opening- does your opening establish the document purpose and introduce the main topic? and closings­ does your closing provide a summary, offer recommendations or suggest actions?, graphic aids- do you have enough visual aids to understand the data'? are 'they appropriate?, language- have you used appropriate language? too much technical jargon? have you define terms your readers may not know? and reader usability- can your readers understand and use the information effectively? does the document format help your reader find specific information? After you are satisfied, then the final editing will focus on the form and style like grammar, punctuation's ... and others. and finally proof reading.

Types of Technical Writing.

This section would like to convey the different types of technical writing in comparison to writing a thesis. Testing these documents through the elements of writing: the reader, purpose and situation The diversity in technical writing is there no matter what our jobs are, we will have to communicate our technical knowledge to others both inside and outside the organization.

Conventional Reports/Project Ideas/Research Ideas- These reports may be written as informal memos, letters, or long formal documents,

Executive Summary Report. It is a longer synopsis of one or two pages that provides a more comprehensive overview than an abstract. Its purpose is to cover main points, conclusions, recommendations and the impact of the subject. Readers use these synopses to orient themselves to the main topics in a report before reading it completely. It looks like a miniature report. It is difficult to write because they require summarizing in a few words what a report covers in many pages. It should stand alone for readers who don't intend to read the full text of the report. Example: The organization needs the Renovation/Redesigning of a Hotel. Here are suggested information to be included: background of the situation, major topics, significant details, major conclusions or results, recommendations and a discussion how the subject can affect the organization.

Incident Report. It provides information about accidents, equipment breakdowns or any disruptive occurrence. Its purpose is to keep important records of an event that may use the report in legal actions if injury or damage has occurred. It aids mangers to help them prevent future accidents or disruptions. Example: The organization needs a report about an industrial fire, which recently took place. It should include the following informations: Description of the incidents, causes and recommendations.

Investigative Report. It analyzes data and seeks to answer to why something happens, how it happens or what would happen under certain conditions. Its purpose is to summarize the relevant data, analyzes the meaning of the data and assesses the potential impact that the results will have on the organization or on specific research questions. The sources of the data can include field studies, surveys, observation and tests of products, people, opinions or events both inside and outside the laboratory. Example: The organization needs a report on an Airplane Crash. It should include: the introduction, the methods used in the investigations, the results, the discussion or interpretation of results and their conclusions.

Progress Report. It is also called the Status Report. It informs readers about the project that is not completed. Its purpose is to provide information and it records the project events for readers who are not involved in-day to- day operations. Example: Dam Repair Project. It should include an introduction, work completed, work remaining, adjustments/problems and conclusions.

Trip Report. It provides a record of a business trip or visit to the field. Its purpose is a useful record both for the person who made the trip and for the decision-makers that need information about the subjects discussed during the trip. It records all significant information gathered either from meetings or from direct observations. Example: A trip report on a training system for a new, complicated software package. The report should contain an introductory section, information section and conclusions and recommendations.

Training Design. It's a project idea informing the reader on how a training could be implemented. Its purpose is to further explain the different activities to be taken up in a training program. Example: A Seminar Workshop on Project Development. It should contain: Title of the Training, Training Venue, Duration of the Training, the sponsor of the training, Schedule/Activities, Evaluation Schemes, Methodology Management Team and Estimated Budget.

Project Proposal. It suggests new ways to respond to specific company or organization situations, or they suggest specific solutions to identified problems. It may be internal (written by employee to readers within the company) or external (written from one company to another or from an individual to an organization). The purpose is to suggest a solution to a company problem. It persuades readers that it is practical, efficient and cost effective and suits company or research goals. Example: Safety methods of installing portable generators during rain storms. This should include information's on: the problem, proposed solutions, needed equipment/personnel, schedules, budget; evaluation system, expected benefits and summary/conclusions.

Feasibility Study. It provides information to decision makers about the practicality and potential success of several alternative solutions to a problem. Its purpose is to identify all reasonable options and prepares a report that evaluates cost, reliability, time constraints, and organization goals. It provides the information necessary to make an informed choice among alternatives. Example: Relocation of a company to a new city. Information to be included is: introduction, comparison of alternatives, conclusions and recommendations.

Thesis Writing. It is a scholarly made technical report because logical and intensive research is undertaken. It provides information to readers about a topic which are based on theories and later translated into practical application or action intervention to organizations, groups or individual concerns. Example: “A Study on the Leadership Behaviors and Development Performance of Municipal Mayors: An Assessment"

KEY FEATURES OF THESIS WRITING

Definition of a Thesis

A Thesis is an idea or theory that is expressed as a statement, a contention for which evidence is gathered and discussed logically (Anderson and Poole, 1998). It normally represents the culmination of a substantial piece of original work over a period of at least one year.

Purpose of a Thesis

A Thesis involves an academic study, experiment, invention, or development of a (formula, application, methodology, theory, idea, etc ... ) It is considered to be an original or a major enhancement to the existing one. The Thesis must include a literature survey providing background on, the past and recent developments on the thesis subject. It is conducted to replicate previous research or testing the relevance of findingd of research completed in a different milieu. Other research builds on existing studies to follow up new leads or to redefine or qualify the findings of earlier studies. The thesis is expected to make an original contribution to knowledge.

Thesis writing is a demanding and challenging work for students as it unfolds and is gratifying once it is finished. It is a tough test for intelligence and endurance.

The Research Process.

             

The Research Wheel

Steps of the Research Process. It involves the following process:

1. Empirical Observation - the entry points is an infinite array of possible topics.

2. Proposition - the inductive logic serves to relate specific topic to a broader context and begins with hunches" I wonder if'. Developed proposition are established relationships, it exist within a conceptual/theoretical framework.

3. Conceptual Framework- it consist of statements that link abstract concepts to empirical data. A Theory allows us to move from observation to observation and make sense of similarities and differences.

4. Research Questions and Hypothesis - basing from the conceptual framework, the questions and hypothesis could be formed.

5. Data Collection - this refers to the gathering of information relevant to the subject under study.

6. Data Analysis - data collected are analyzed and the results/findings are interpreted as bases for further action and decision making.

Nature and Limitations of a Thesis.

Authorities have reached no absolute agreement regarding details of form in thesis writing. In a any particular situation, several forms may be acceptable. Some universities require students to follow special forms quite different from those elsewhere. An example: A department of sociology at the same university requires students to use a particular referencing technique that would not be acceptable to the department of history at the same university. Regardless of a particular system adapted, the students may have the option to choose which ever is applicable in their study.

PRACTICAL GUIDE IN THE SELECTION OF A THESIS TOPIC

Criteria in Choosing a Thesis Title.

The following are some recommended criteria in the selection of a title: Using personal experience for topic discovery -reflect on your personal experiences for a topic that touches your life-style or career; Talking with others to find a subject - talk with other people because collaborative learning can broaden your vision of the issues. Speculating about your subject to discover ideas - speculate about the subject and discover ideas by listing issues, asking questions, free writing and other techniques.

Three Demands for a Research Paper

It must examine a significant issue; It must address a knowledgeable reader and carry that reader to another plateau of knowledge; It must have a serious purpose, one that demands analysis of the issues, argues from a position, and explains complex details.

Characteristics of a Good Thesis Research Problem

According to (Anderson, 1990), there are ten important characteristics of a good research problem for a thesis:

The Problem can be stated clearly and concisely. It is tested by writing into a concise sentence or paragraph and to share it with others; The problem generates research questions. It refers to the formulation of specific questions which represents the various aspects of the problem; It is grounded in theory. Good problems have theoretical and or/conceptual frameworks for their analysis. It relates to the specifics of what is being investigated to a more general background of theory which helps the results and link it to the field; It relates to one or more academic disciplines. It should be based on disciplines like sociology, psychology or management science to have clear links to one or two disciplines; It has a base in the research literature. It often relates to a well defined body of literature written by a selected group and published in journals to establish connections; It has potential significance or importance. The problem must have importance to the researcher and the others as well; It is do-able within the time frame and budget. Logistic factors are needed to carry out the thesis; Sufficient data are available or can be obtained. Data to address the problem should be accessible. There may be some restrictions on the environment and some other factors; The researcher's methodological strengths can be applied to the problem. Some problems are related to standard methodology. The researcher should have the inclination towards the methodology to be used; The problem is new; it is not already answered sufficiently. Ones the field is known, it becomes clear what has been done and what needs to be done.

Chapter Two

PRELIMINARIES OR FRONT MATTERS

This chapter presents the chronological Parts of a Thesis and its Contents. It would contain the title page, approval sheet, executive summary, abstract, acknowledgments, table of contents, list of tables and list of figures.

THE PRELIMINARIES OR FRONT MATTER OF A THESIS

This is the front matter of the thesis. It includes the following:

Thesis Title Page.

It is usually the first page of the Thesis It includes the following: Title: It should be a concise statement of the main topic and should identify the actual variables or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between them. It should be fully explanatory when standing alone. The recommended length for a title is from 10 to 12 words. It is centered at the top third of the page. Most universities and colleges have their own style of title page for theses, and this should follow exactly in matters of content, capitalization, centering and spacing.Author's name and institutional affiliation: The preferred author's name is first name, middle initial and last name because this reduces the likelihood of mistaken identity. Use the same fonn for publication throughout your career; that is, do not use initials on one manuscript and the full name on a later one. Determining whether Laura A. Lintao is the same person as L. A. Lintao, or L. Lintao can be difficult, particularly when citations span several years and institutional affiliations change. The affiliation identifies the location where the author conducted the investigation, which is usually an institution. It is centered at the middle of the page; name, title and company/school of the writer, centered at the bottom third of the page and date of the research/report, centered directly below the writer's name. The title page is not listed in the table of contents but it is counted as page i.

ii. Committee Approval Sheet.

It is the page where the members of the Committee of the Oral Defense sign and where the rating of the thesis is to be indicated.

iii An Executive Summary.

It would enable the readers to view the entire thesis work at a glance in one page (in two or more pages in spreadsheet form). It consist of three main parts namely: thesis problem, research methodology and Results. The thesis problem must consist of the situation and the research problem. The situation presents in brief the global reality, national reality and the local reality in relation to the study. The research problem presents the research objecties, the research questions and hypotheses. The research methodology should mention briefly the conceptual framework of the study (in graphic format). It shows the independent and dependent variables, research methods used, target population and sample respondents, sampling procedures, data collection procedures and statistical treatment of data. The Results should include the summary findings, conclusions and recommendations.

iv. An Abstract.

It is a brief: comprehensive summary of the contents of the study. It allows readers to survey the contents of a study quickly. A well-prepared abstract can be the most important paragraph of the study. It is a synopsis of the most important points in a report and provides readers with a preview of the full contents. It can be specified in 200 words. It can be either be descriptive or informative. A descriptive abstract names the topics covered in a research without revealing details about those topics while informative abstract is frequently used for formal reports and technical articles, describes the major subjects in the report and summarizes the conclusions and recommendations. It includes more details and gives a more complete synopsis of the report contents than the descriptive does. It consists of a short statement of the problem, a brief description of the methods and procedures adopted and a condensed summary of the findings of the study.

v. Acknowledgments.

Citations accorded to the persons who in one way or another had helped in the realization of the study. This includes names of individuals or companies/agencies whom the researcher was indebted to such as reading materials, facilities used or financial support to the researcher.

vi. Table of Contents.

It alerts the reader to pages that contain specific topics, the overall organization and content of the research and specific and supplemental materials such as appendixes. All front matter for a thesis paper is numbered in small Roman numerals. The first page of the thesis proper is numbered as page 1 in Arabic numbers, and all pages after will have Arabic numbers.

vii. List of Tables.

The list of tables appears directly after the list of figures. List each table by number and title and indicate page numbers. In a list of tables, the table numbers (in Arabic, followed by a period) are placed in a column flush left under the heading "Table," and the page numbers are listed flush right under the heading "Page." The table titles should begin two spaces after the period following the table number and should agree exactly with the wording of the titles as they appear above the tables themselves. The titles are capitalized in either sentence or headline style, and run over lines are indented three spaces. Double -space between items, single-space within.

viii. List of Figures.

Any graphic aid, such as bar graph, map or flowchart that is not a table with numbers or words in columns is called a figure. The list of figures follows the table of contents. List each figure by both number and title and indicate page numbers. The figure numbers in tile list are aligned by their periods under the word "Figure" and page numbers are listed flush right under the word "Page," Captions are capitalized headline syle.

Chapter Three

GENERALIES OF THE STUDY

The following are the suggested parts and contents of the Thesis as outlined below: A few form and style was introduced (such as center and side headings) to guide the readers how to go on into the formulation of the different chapters of the thesis.

CHAPTER 1

GENERALITIES OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction of the Study

In paragraph form this section includes the following information: 1. Global Context ­this portion describes the situation associated in the global context of the study, in general the world situation. How does your study link with the current problems of today. does the research focus on groups, organization or an individual. 2. National Context - state how the" country or nation is currently experiencing the present problem which your study has some kind of relatedness. 3. Local Context- state how the study relates or relevance to the area in focus. 4. Overview/history of the Organization (subject of the study)- make brief statements for the company; it should also include in brief some information on the main topics of the study of which the organization is a focus.

1.2 Research Objectives

In paragraph form, this refers to the general objective of the study, It simply indicates the intent or purpose why the study is conducted. It must be stated in declarative sentences or in operational terms what the research sought to achieve: what to find out?

to determine ... , to identify ... ,to assess .... Follow the SMART Formula. SMART means S-specific, M-measurable, A-attainable, R-realistic and T- time bounded.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

In question form, the research must have an explanatory basis. It should contain a brief summary of the conceptual underpinnings of the proposed research. This section calls for very specific questions to be answered based from the objectives. It is the most critical part as it seeks to ask what are the researchable areas of the study. It must be stated in interrogative sentences or statements. In one major question, it can have two or more follow-up questions. The questions should synchronized with the variables as presented in the conceptual framework.

1.4 Scope of the Research

 In paragraph form, include the following information: Topic in focus- state the different main variables of the study. State what are the main independent and dependent variables; Target respondents- state who are your main respondents. Are they Managers? Employees? or Middle Managers? The area in focus- refers to the coverage of the study whether it is nationwide, regional or provincial or district wide where the subjects can be located.

1.5 Limitations of the Research

It implies limitations on the research design that you have deliberately imposed. It restricts the population to which the results of the study can be generalized. Limitations refer to the restrictions over which you have no control. The extent/or magnitude to which the study as to what topics or concerns. What can not be done ... or to be done.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This part should explain what is the relevance or usefulness of the study. Who would be benefited. What importance does it generates for certain individual, groups or organization. It would address the 3 W's (what, who and why) plus how?

1.7 Definition of Terms

This section would inform us about terms, which are either in operational terms or literal meanings to express clarity and correct understanding of some terms not familiar with the readers. It should contain a brief and concise definitions about two or three sentences. It should define all terms, which are presented in the conceptual framework. and other relevant terms included in the discussion of the text.

Chapter Four

REVIEW OF LITERATURE RELATED AND STUDIES

This chapter will discuss the different parts and contents of chapter 2 of the thesis. The following are outlined which provides a context for proposed study and demonstrates why it is important and timely. It needs to clarify the relationship between the proposed study and previous work conducted on the topic. It can assume that you form a dialogue between you and the reader. To challenge effectively, you could ask, "What is your point here? So what? You could answer "yes" this is the exact study to be done at this time to move knowledge in this field or little further along the same subject.

It is a coherent argument that leads to the description of a proposed study. According to the Venn Diagram, collect literature and studies which are very relevant, relevant and background literature and studies as related to your study. It includes both foreign and local literature and studies. It would show or build arguments either the study has similar observations or results; it would also contrast or argue on some points with respect to some literature or studies which was conducted by various writers, academicians or practitioners.

Words that describes similarities/differences are: supports, presents, confirmed, illustrates, shares, positive relationships, revealed, pointed, argued, concluded, negative relationships and contrasting results. It is necessary to show how the problem under investigation relates to previous research studies. It is important to locate the problem within a theoretical framework and in such cases the theory' needs to be reviewed as well. It would give the researcher a wider range of ideas as to similarities in the studies, which will contribute to the conceptualization of the research paradigm. This chapter should include the following information:

Chapter Five

RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS

The chapter will discuss the topics of Research Frameworks, the theoretical framework, the conceptual framework, research hypothesis and operationalization of the variables. This chapter of the thesis will include the following:

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS

Brief introduction of the chapter- in a paragraph form, specify what would be the content of this chapter.

3.1 Theoretical Framework

The Theoretical Framework refers to the theories being used as a basis or reference for the study which are drawn from the literature. The big ideas of the authors or theorist, experts and specialist. It is the big map of ideas in global terms.

A framework is a model, which allow the researcher to explore the relationship of variables in a logical and prescribed fashion. It clarifies questions and it summarizes the overall concept being investigated

It should include the following information: Link here the theories and studies which you patterned your conceptual framework; Show specific models which you think most of the variables are taken; Write the main variable and its sub variables and summarized the authors plus year whose theory is included.

3.2 Conceptual Framework

It is the specific map of ideas of your topic or study. In here, the researcher has to explain the research framework (model) together with the explanation of the variables. It

is a framework which students designed/ conceptualized for the specific needs and issue of the study. The development of a suitable framework is part of a process of planning and clarifying the research problem and conducting the analysis.

There are different kinds of frameworks which are popularly used by research students: One - dimensional framework. The starting point for the research is often the formulation of a one-dimensional framework. Most common was the pre-test-post test experiment. Something is measured before an educational intervention and again afterwards. Another example: Input-process-output model. It is popularly known as the Black box model; Two-dimensional frameworks. It permits analysis of the interrelationships between sets of related variables. It is formed by dividing the data sample into groups with same characteristics. It would suggest various types of inputs, which bear logical relationships to components of institutional development; The Logical Framework Analysis (LFA) Design. It is a design used by USAID. It provides a structure for project planning and evaluation research. ·It is essentially a planning and evaluation model which contains 16 cells ( 4 x 4 table). The rational part of the model is its Logic. The various cells are interrelated in the vertical dimension and also interrelated horizontally; Another type was the Logical Framework Analysis type designed by the Germans. It is also based on logic. It shows the rational or logical way of analyzing problems through the "decision tree model" It shows the cause and effect relationship of things. The causes are the independent variables and the effect is the dependent variables. The path analysis and three some variable frameworks are also other frameworks to choose from for any suitable kind of study.

This part of the thesis is the most vital and critical part as this will form the basis of the conceptual part of the research.

A research paradigm can be conceptualized as patterned from the theoretical framework. Example: A study on the leadership behavior and development performance of the Expatriates in Thailand.

It should include the following information: Present your conceptual framework showing the independent and dependent variables; Discuss in brief the main variables and sub-variables and which theoy are they patterned.

3.3 Research Hypothesis

A Hypothesis is a claim or statement either about a value of a single population characteristics or about the values of several characteristics.

A test of hypothesis is a method for deciding which of the two contradictory claims is the correct one. In carrying out a test, we initially assume that a particular one of the two is the correct one. This claim will be rejected in favor of the second (alternative) claim if sample evidence is incompatible with the initial assumption.

The null hypothesis, denoted by Ho, is the claim that is initially assumed to be true. The other hypothesis is referred as the alternative hypothesis and is denoted as Ha. In carrying out a test of Ho versus Ha, the hypothesis Ho will be rejected in favor of Ha only if sample evidence strongly suggests that Ho will not be rejected.

How are hypothesis stated? Hypothesis should synchronize with those asked in the statement of the problems particularly focusing on the relationship of variables.

It should include the following information: List all the statements/hypotheses which you wanted to prove in the study. Which hypothesis should be tested? There are only two hypotheses that can be statistically tested-the hypothesis of difference and the hypothesis of association. Whenever the research is experimental, then the hypothesis of difference is the one that must be tested. This hypothesis states that the populations from which the sample groups have been selected are in some way different from each other. If however the research is post facto, then the hypothesis under scrutiny might be one of either difference or association; The hypothesis of association states that a correlation exists in the population from which the sample has been selected. The correlation may exist between different measures taken on the same group of Subjects (for example, a single group of subjects being measured on both height and weight) or between the same measure taken on different subjects (for example, obtaining IQ scores from pairs of identical twis). Testing the hypothesis of association requires different statistical tests than does testing the hypothesis of difference.

If the Hypothesis of Difference has been tested, are the samples independent or correlated? Whenever the hypothesis of difference is tested, whether in experimental or post facto research, it must clearly determined whether the sample groups are independent or correlated. If the selection of one sample is in no way influenced by the selection of another, then the samples are independent. This occurs when each sample is randomly selected. If on the other hand, the subjects to be measured are in any way paired oft: either by using the same subject more than once or by equating subjects on the basis of some relevant variable then the groups are correlated. Attempting to isolate differences between correlated sample measures requires different statistical tests than when analyzing differences between independent sample measures.

3.4 Operationalization of the Independent and Dependent Variables

It should include the following information: Give an example how to translate into action your different sub-variables for the main independent variable. (in statement form similar to that of the questionnaire); Give an example how to translate into action your different sub-variables for the main dependent variable. (in satement form similar to that of the questionnaire).