Predicting determinants of Internet banking adoption

Predicting determinants of Internet banking adoption

A two-staged regression-neural network approach

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the main determinants of Internet banking users on the basis of literature of technology acceptance model (TAM). Understanding and predicting main determinants of Internet banking is an important issue for banking industry and users.

Design/methodology/approach – Service quality and trust were incorporated in the TAM together with demographic variables. The data were collected using Google Docs from 103 Sri Lankan Internet banking users. A two-staged regression-neural network model was applied to understand and predict Internet banking adoption.

Findings – The results obtained from multiple linear regression model were compared with the results from neural network model to predict Internet banking adoption and the performance of latter model was found to superior. The neural network model was able to capture relative importance of all independent variables, service quality, trust, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude and demographic variables.

Practical implications – This study provides useful insights with regard to development of Internet banking systems to banking professionals and information systems researchers in Sri Lanka and similar emerging economies.

Originality/value –The majority of studies in Internet banking adoption in Sri Lanka and elsewhere usually utilize modeling methods suited for explanatory purposes.

Keywords Neural network, TAM, Sri Lanka, Internet banking, Regression, Service quality

Paper type Research paper

1.  Introduction

 

Internet banking technologies have been implemented by a large number of banks globally for providing greater convenience, round the clock availability, reduced employee and transactional costs, easier customer access to information and increased accuracy. The majority of the earlier research studies focused on Internet banking adoption from either a service provider or an employee perspective (Daniel, 1999; Anandarajan et al., 2000; Aladwani, 2001; Khalfan and Alshawaf, 2004; and Corrocher, 2006). However, the focus of the majority of the studies subsequently shifted to the adoption of these technologies by the user for two reasons:

(1)             Problems pertaining to provider and employee adoption have largely been resolved.

(2)             Global banks are relying on Internet technologies as the key to achieve customer satisfaction and efficiency necessary for surviving in the highly competitive banking industry.

A number of research studies have been conducted to understand the user adoption of online banking services in the developed and developing economies (Sathye, 1999; Al-Somali et al., 2009; Gikandi and Bloor, 2010; Adesina and Ayo, 2010; Riffai et al., 2011; Chong et al., 2012b). In developing economies, particularly the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), the introduction of Internet banking technologies lagged a few years following their launch in developed countries. Banking service providers, both domestic and multinational, in the GCC have reported large-scale implementations of Internet technologies for providing enhanced services for retail and corporate customers. Despite the rapid growth in the penetration of Internet technologies, the use of Internet for banking purposes is reported to be less than 20 per cent in the GCC countries (Augustine, 2013). The Internet adoption in developed countries has been well-researched, whereas in the case of developing countries in the GCC, the resolution of problems concerning banking technology acceptance can benefit from further research contributions (Riffai et al., 2011).

This study intends to achieve the following objectives. Firstly, this research focuses on understanding important determinants that are useful in predicting the adoption of Internet banking based on modified technology acceptance model (TAM). The original TAM as proposed by Davis (1989) is modified to incorporate additional variables, namely, trust and service quality. Along with these variables, demographic variables such as gender, age, Internet experience, income group and education are also considered. Secondly, the paper intends to examine whether artificial neural networks achieve a superior model fit as compared to multiple linear regression (MLR) for prediction of Internet banking adoption. Finally, this research attempts to examine Internet banking adoption in Sri Lanka, an emerging economy in the GCC.

Often, the TAM-based models used for modeling user behavior are explanatory in nature and are effective in exploring the causal relationships between the variables concerned. However, Shmueli (2010) discusses differences between explanatory and predictive models and points toward the need to exercise caution when using explanatory models for predictive purposes. The linear regression methods used in the case of explanatory models for examining causal relationships often assume linear compensatory decision making by the user. In reality, users’ decisions with respect to the adoption of Internet banking technologies can be non-compensatory, and the complex nature of these adoption decisions may often necessitate the use of nonlinear statistical methods (Chong, 2013a).

In Section 2, key literature pertaining to Internet banking adoption, TAM and neural network modeling are discussed. Section 3 includes the study design and analyses, followed by the discussion of results in Section 4. Finally, the managerial implications, limitations and future work are discussed in Section 5.

1.1   Overview and Internet technology evolution

The Sultanate of Oman is one of the important member nations within the GCC located in the southeastern region of Arabian Peninsula, adjacent to Saudi Arabia, Republic of Yemen and the UAE. Subsequent to 2000, the improvement in oil prices resulted in a tremendous improvement in economic growth. Currently, the country’s gross domestic product stands at US $80.57 billion (World Bank Report, 2013), and Oman maintains a significant trade surplus owing to its oil and gas exports. The country had a population of 3.63 million in 2013 (World Bank Report, 2013) of which expatriates contribute a sizeable percentage of more than 30 per cent.

The launching of Internet by Omantel, then a public sector organization, marked the beginning of the e-revolution in Oman and is considered as one of the major milestones in Oman’s modernization drive that began in the 90s. Omantel and Nawras, both private companies, are the primary fixed and mobile Internet service providers in Oman. The penetration of Internet and the growth of network coverage has been quite impressive; the Internet penetration has increased from 22.8 to 39.44 per cent between the years 2009 and 2013 (Telecom Regulatory Authority of Oman, 2013). As of 2013, there were 2,443,296 active mobile broadband subscribers and 154,290 fixed broadband subscribers (Telecom Regulatory Authority of Oman, 2013). The development of information and technology infrastructure to lay foundation for a digital society that would support e-government and e-commerce constitutes one of the main strategic priorities for the Omani Government. Thus, the Information Technology Authority, an independent legal body allied to the Ministry of National Economy, was established in 2006. Omantel has recently implemented several projects, including the installation of new transmission stations in remote areas to provide the entire population with mobile services.

2. Literature review

 

2.1       TAM and Internet banking adoption studies

The impact of user acceptance on the success of technology implementation motivated research in the area of technology acceptance. Early works that laid the foundations for understanding the nature of technology acceptance recognized behavioral intention as the key determinant of technology acceptance and contributed to the development of the intention-based models, namely, theory of reasoned action model (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), theory of planned behavior model (Ajzen and Madden, 1986) and TAM (Davis, 1989). These models were followed by the Unified theory for acceptance and use of technology (Venkatesh et al., 2003), also referred to as UTAUT, which combined elements of earlier intention-based models and expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964). Among the models proposed for understanding user acceptance behaviors, TAM was widely used for understanding the factors influencing user acceptance with respect to Internet banking in various countries. Davis (1989) as part of TAM proposed two constructs perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU). These are defined as follows:

(1)   “PU is the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance”; and

(2)     “PEOU refers to the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort”.

Klopping and McKinney (2004) provided evidence in support of the effectiveness of TAM in predicting behavioral intention when compared to other competing models. A sample of empirical studies that tested TAM or proposed and tested a modified TAM include (Sathye, 1999; Thornton and White, 2001; Wang et al., 2003; Pikkarainen et al., 2004; Sukkar and Hasan, 2005; Guriting and Ndubisi, 2006; Cheng et al., 2006; Kuisma et al., 2007; Al-Somali et al., 2009; Riffai et al. 2011; Sharma and Chandel, 2013; and Ariff et al., 2014). Recently, Sharma and Govindaluri (2014) discussed the factors affecting acceptance of Internet banking technologies in India using a structural equation model based on extended TAM.

Despite the increasing global importance of the banks operating in the GCC, and the large-scale implementation of Internet technologies in GCC banking, the number of research studies that focus on user acceptance of Internet banking are quite limited. Al-Somali et al. (2009) conducted a study among Saudi Arabian online banking users that suggests Internet connection quality, awareness, social influence and computer self-efficacy as significant predictors of online banking acceptance. In the case of Oman, research has focused primarily on the provider adoption of Internet banking (Khalfan and AlShawaf, 2004; Al-Hajri and Tatnall, 2007), except for a study by Riffai et al. (2011) that mentions trust, usability and perceived quality among the attributes influencing the adoption of Internet banking in Oman.

2.2       Modified TAM

This research is an attempt to modify TAM by adding trust, service quality and demographic variables. The remainder of this section discusses these variables and supports their inclusion in the model.

Trust can be considered as one of the most significant factors impacting user decision to adopt Internet banking, particularly as the user’s financial assets can be exposed to multiple risks in an online banking relationship. Pavlou (2003) had defined trust as “a belief that customers entrust upon online retailers after careful consideration of the characteristics of retailers.” The degree to which the user is willing to trust in spite of the security and privacy concerns can depend on a number of variables. Al-Somali et al., (2009) found trust as one of the key drivers of Internet banking adoption in a study conducted in Saudi Arabia. An interesting research study by Yeh and Li (2009) investigates the impact of customization, brand image and satisfaction in terms of building customer trust toward m-commerce. Riffai et al. (2011) have studied trust and observed that the levels of trust are low in Oman. In both the aforementioned studies, trust is part of an explanatory model primarily used for understanding causal relationships between trust and adoption of Internet banking. In this research, trust is incorporated into the model with for predictive purposes.

Service quality can constitute one of the key determinants of adoption of Internet banking. The relationship between service quality and service adoption is well-researched (Dabholkar et al., 2000; Shih and Fang, 2006; and Siu and Mou, 2005). Shostack (1984), Parasuraman et al. (1985) and Grönroos (1984) laid the conceptual foundations for modeling the quality of services. Two of the models, namely, SERVQUAL by Parasuraman et al. (1985) and two-dimensional perceived quality model were widely debated (Carman, 1990; Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Parasuraman et al., 1994; and Brady and Cronin, 2001).

The phenomenal growth of e-services in the late 90s led to the development of specific models dedicated to the measurement of quality in information services (Kettinger and Lee, 1999; Liu and Kirk, 2000; and Parasuraman et al., 2005). In addition to the quality of e-services, some studies have addressed the quality of online banking services (Siu and Mou, 2005 and Sangeetha and Mahalingam,(2011). The quality issues in the context of Internet banking services have been discussed by few researchers in the case of GCC countries. For example, Sohail and Shaikh (2008) investigate the attributes that have a bearing on the quality judgments of online banking users in Saudi Arabia and list three factors in the order of importance as efficiency and security, fulfillment and responsiveness. Furthermore, Sharma et al. (2013) investigated the attributes that have a bearing on the quality judgments of e-government services in Oman.

Demographic variables, including gender, age, and education, level have been discussed in the literature in connection with adoption of Internet technologies (Chong et al., 2012a, 2012b; Chong, 2013a). These studies show that demographic variables can influence the Internet banking technology adoption both as an independent variable or a moderating variable. For example, Riffai et al. (2011) found demographic variables age, gender and education play the role of moderating variables in the trust – adoption relationship. In addition to the three aforementioned demographic variables, two variables, customer’s income group and their overall Internet experience, were added to explore the impact of demographic variables on the adoption of Internet banking.

2.3       MLR model

MLR analysis is used to perform the modeling of the linear relationships between a dependent variable, adoption with respect to  independent variables considered in this study (Hair et al., 2010). The variable adoption measures the degree to which users adopt Internet banking which is a combination of acceptance and usage of the Internet banking service. One reason for using MLR in this study was to achieve the research objective of comparison of performance of a linear modeling method MLR with a nonlinear neural network model.

The general model for MLR can be written as follows:

Y_i = ß₀ + ß₁X_i1 + ß₂X_i2+ ... +ß_p-1X_i,p-1 + ε_i,     (1)

Where þ0, þ1, þp-1 are parameters; Xi1 …, Xi, p-1 are known constants; and si are statistically independent error terms with N (0, o2). The MLR equation for the adoption of Internet banking is as follows:

Adoption_i = ß₀ + ß₁ * PU_i + ß₂ * PEOU_i + ß₃ * Integrity_i + ß₄ * Servicequality_i

+ ß₅ * Attitude_i + ß₆ * Gender + ß₇ * Age +  ß₈ * Income, where, i = 1,... n

2.4       Neural network

An artificial neuron is a processing unit, which is similar to the biological neuron of the human brain:

Artificial neural network or neural network is a massively parallel distributed processor made up of simple processing units, which have a natural propensity for storing experimental

knowledge and making it available for use (Haykin, 2007).

An artificial neural network is a computational model resembles a human brain where acquisition of new knowledge from the environment is achieved through learning processes. The mathematical model of neural network consists of a hidden layer feed forward network with x₁,· ·  ·, x_n, as inputs and y_k as the output. Synaptic weights are assigned to each input and are transferred to the hidden layer made of a number of hidden neurons. The weighted summation of the inputs is performed by each neuron and transferred to a nonlinear activation function. The output of neural network is given as follows:

Where w_kn is the synaptic weight between output of neuron k and input of neuron n and Ý(v) is the nonlinear activation function. The activation function used in the neural network model was hyperbolic tangent. Neural network model offers various advantages over traditional statistical models. A linear or nonlinear nature of neural networks is a major advantage over traditional statistical models. Neural network models have outperformed the traditionally used MLR method in information systems research (Chong, 2013a). Applications of neural networks are increasing in business research due to its computational power, flexibility and ease of use (SPSS, 2010) (Figure 1).

3. Study design and analysis

 

The methodology in this paper is similar to the approach adopted by Chong (2013a). This research uses neural network model as the primary tool for analysis and compares the results obtained with respect to prediction of adoption of Internet banking by neural network model with those obtained by the MLR model.

3.1 Sample and procedure

A survey questionnaire was developed to explore the various determinants affecting the adoption of Internet banking with the help of Google Docs, a free online survey design

Service provided by Google. A pilot study was conducted with 25 Internet banking users and 3 experts of information systems. The survey was modified based on the pilot study and opinions of experts. Convenient sampling procedure was adopted to distribute survey. A Web page link of survey was sent to respondents using mainly three channels, namely, friends, relatives and colleagues. The data were collected using convenient sampling approach in the month of October 2019. In total, 103 usable responses were obtained from Internet banking users. The minimum sample size of ten samples for each independent variable was achieved, as recommended by Hair et al. (2010).

3.2       Variables and measurements

This paper attempts to predict the important determinants affecting the adoption of Internet banking based on users’ perceptions. These determinants adapted from the literature include service quality (Sohail and Shaikh, 2008), PEOU (Davis, 1989; Cheng et al., 2006), PU (Davis, 1989), attitude (Venkatesh et al., 2003; Cheng et al., 2006), trust (Al-Somali et al., 2009; Riffai et al., 2011) and demographic variables (Chong, 2013a) of Internet banking users. The demographic variables include age, gender and income .All determinants other than demographic variables were measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). For measurement purposes, a total of 17 indicators were used for independent variables and 3 indicators in case of the dependent variable adoption (Sharma and Govindaluri, 2014). All measurement scale items and its descriptive statistics can be found in the Appendix

3.3       MLR analysis

The MLR model is used to determine the statistically significant independent variables that predict the adoption of Internet banking. MLR results yielded a low value of coefficient determination (R2 = 0.63). As the R2 value is low indicating the weakness of linear model in explaining the variance, a nonlinear model may be considered. Hence, a neural network model, which is nonlinear in nature, was selected to model the relationship between adoption and the independent variables. The results obtained from regression model are compared with the results of the neural network model in the next section. The summary of MLR results is given in Table I. The results obtained from MLR shows that Attitude (X Variable 4), Service Quality (X Variable 5) and PEOU (X Variable 8) are the significant factors in determining the adoption of Internet Banking as the p-values are less than 0.05 . Other variables are not statistically significant as the p-values are greater than 0.05.

SUMMARY OUTPUT
Regression Statistics
Multiple R	0.79188371
R Square	0.62707982
Adjusted R Square	0.59534193
Standard Error	0.30668903
Observations	103

ANOVA
	df	SS	MS	F	Significance F
Regression	8	14.86727	1.858409	19.75808	3.6847E-17
Residual	94	8.841467	0.094058
Total	102	23.70874

	Coefficients	Standard Error	t Stat	P-value	Lower 95%	Upper 95%	Lower 95.0%	Upper 95.0%
Intercept	2.76740134	0.220308	12.5615	7.96E-22	2.329974266	3.204828	2.329974	3.20482841
X Variable 1	0.0682367	0.062938	1.084185	0.281056	-0.056728644	0.193202	-0.05673	0.19320205
X Variable 2	0.0148882	0.023756	0.626707	0.532371	-0.032280376	0.062057	-0.03228	0.06205678
X Variable 3	0.02452263	0.023177	1.058076	0.292732	-0.021495114	0.07054	-0.0215	0.07054037
X Variable 4	-0.1358185	0.036007	-3.77196	0.000283	-0.207312051	-0.06432	-0.20731	-0.0643249
X Variable 5	-0.5395387	0.190352	-2.83443	0.005619	-0.917486484	-0.16159	-0.91749	-0.16159087
X Variable 6	-0.030071	0.028301	-1.06254	0.290715	-0.086263532	0.026122	-0.08626	0.02612159
X Variable 7	0.32942539	0.186506	1.766295	0.080593	-0.04088756	0.699738	-0.04089	0.69973833
X Variable 8	-0.0754254	0.027168	-2.7763	0.006636	-0.129367316	-0.02148	-0.12937	-0.02148355

3.4 Neural network results

The neural network model was developed using Data Engine software in this research. Three variables age, gender and income were included in input layer of the network model along with the five covariates service quality, PU, PEOU, trust and attitude. The dependent variable adoption which refers to adoption of Internet banking is included in the output layer of the network model. The results shows that neural network model is a better choice than regression model. Furthermore, a nonlinear neural network model shows a better fit of the model in comparison with MLR and could capture nonlinear relationship of independent variables with dependent variable in the context of Internet banking adoption (Table II).

The training data set included 65 responses and the testing data set included 30 responses obtained from participants of the survey.

When checking the output neuron value for the above criteria, the network achieved the following results.

Neural Network Results for set of 8 responses.

Respondent	Desired Output	Output Neuron	Correct or Wrong
1	0	0	Correct
2	0	0	Correct
3	1	1	Correct
4	0	0	Correct
5	1	0	Wrong
6	0	0	Correct
7	1	1	Correct
8	1	1	Correct

According to the above results obtained, the neural network provides 7 correct classifications, while only one classification is wrong. Therefore neural network provides 88% accuracy level when predicting the Internet Banking Adoption with a data set obtained from 103 respondents.  Whereas the MLR model was able to provide only 63% accuracy level.

4. Discussion

The objective of this research was to examine whether artificial neural networks achieve a superior model fit as compared to multiple linear regression (MLR) for prediction of Internet banking adoption. This research study shows that neural network model is a better choice than MLR model for predicting Internet banking adoption. The MLR approach was able to explain only 63% of the variance in Internet banking adoption while the Neural Network model was able to provides 88% accuracy level when predicting the Internet Banking Adoption. The limitation in explaining the variance to a greater degree may be because of its inability to capture nonlinear relationships. On the other hand, the neural network model is able to capture nonlinear relationship between the independent variables and Internet banking adoption.

The results obtained from neural network model show that all the determinants (e.g. service quality, trust, ease of use, usefulness, attitude, age, gender, income group) are significant predictors of Internet banking adoption in Sri Lanka.

5. Managerial implications, limitations and future work

In this study, an attempt was made to extend TAM to understand and predict the independent variables of Internet banking adoption. Service quality and trust were incorporated into TAM together with demographic variables, gender, age, Internet experience, income group and education. The results obtained from neural network model and MLR model were compared, and the former fared better among the two methods. The neural network model was able to capture relative importance of all independent variables, including service quality, trust, PU, PEOU, attitude and the five aforementioned demographic variables; whereas MLR was not able to capture the significance of three independent variables.

The study has important managerial implications. First, this study can be helpful for Internet banking professionals to enhance adoption of Internet banking in Sri Lanka. Second, the application of neural network models enables prediction of adoption instead of merely establishing a causal relationship. The use of two-staged neural network regression approach is relatively new and can be an important tool for researchers intending to study the adoption of Internet banking study in future. Third, this study is conducted in a developing country like Sri Lanka, where a number of service providers have adopted Internet banking, expecting the user penetration to grow rapidly over the next decade. The user adoption of Internet banking in Sri Lanka is in a nascent stage, and this study can prove to be useful to Sri Lankan banks seeking to expand the Internet banking customer base. The findings of this study can assist Internet banking service providers in developing appropriate strategies for attracting more users. Lastly, demographic details of users also play an important role in the adoption of Internet banking. Important variables include age, gender, and income group. The results pertaining to demographic variables are useful in determining personalized promotional strategies based on varying preferences of different demographic groups.

5.1 Limitations and future work

This study has mainly three limitations. First, the sample size is not large enough to generalize results to the entire country. Therefore, further studies may have to be conducted for generalizing results for the entire country. Finally, this study focused merely on adoption of Internet banking and can be expanded further to understand continued usage trends by banking users.

Therefore, further studies may have to be conducted for generalizing results for the entire country. Finally, this study focused merely on adoption of Internet banking and can be expanded further to understand continued usage trends by banking users.

Appendix

Indicators of dimensions

PEOU

(P1)          I found it easy to learn commonly used tasks in Internet banking

(P2)          I find the Internet banking Web site clear and easy to interact

(P3)          I expect to become skilled at Internet banking

PU

(PU1)       I am able to save considerable time and effort using Internet banking

(PU2)        I am able to manage my banking tasks more effectively using Internet banking

(PU3)       Overall, I find Internet banking very useful

Attitude

(AT1)    I am likely to recommend the use of Internet banking to my relatives and colleagues

(AT2)        Internet banking fits with my lifestyle

(AT3)        Overall my attitude toward Internet banking is positive

(AT4)        The Internet banking transactions are error free

Service quality

(S1)            The Internet banking site is managed well and up to date

(S2)            The Internet banking site is supported by prompt 24 × 7 customer service

(S3)            Overall, the Internet banking site satisfies my expectations

(S4)            The Internet banking site is trustworthy

Trust

(T1)             I find it easy to complete my tasks using Internet banking

(T2)             The Internet banking site keeps customer’s best interest in mind

(T3)            The Internet banking site is predictable

Adoption

(A1)           I plan to use Internet banking in future

(A2)           I recommend use of Internet banking among peers and relatives

(A3)           I think Internet banking is a great idea

DANKOTUWA PORCELAIN PLC

Ratio Analysis

A ratio analysis is a quantitative analysis of information contained in a company’s financial statements. Ratio analysis is used to evaluate various aspects of a company’s operating and financial performance such as its efficiency, liquidity, profitability and solvency.

It helps to quick indication of a firm's financial performance in several key areas. Ratio Analysis as a tool possesses several important features. The data, which are provided by financial statements. In addition, ratios can be used in a form of trend analysis to identify areas where performance has improved or deteriorated over time.

1.       Liquidity Ratio Analysis

2.       Solvency Ratio Analysis

3.       Profitability Ratio Analysis

4.       Market Ration Analysis

(1). Liquidity Ratio Analysis

This helps to measure a company's ability to pay off its short-term debts as they come due using the company's current or quick assets. Liquidity ratios include current ratio, quick ratio, and working capital ratio.

(1) Working Capital

Base on this, company doesn’t have any working capital issue.

(2) Current Ratio

This measures the short term solvency of the company using the balance sheet. Also known as the working capital ratio, it tells if a firm has sufficient funds to pay its liabilities over the period of next 12 months. The current ratio can also give a sense of the efficiency of a company’s operating cycle or its ability to turn its product into cash.

The company’s current ratios were above one during last five years which is showing company was in good to turn its product into cash. Even the company had a negative profit in the year 2015, the current ratio were more than one.

(1) Acid-test Ratio

Acid test measures Company’s short-term debt paying ability (short term bills like electricity bills & telephone bills of the company)  

Generally, the acid test ratio should be 1:1 or higher. But, in 2013 to 2015, the company's acid test ratios were in low level. That means, it is less than 1. Although 2016/17, its increased more than one, that means Dankotuwa Porcelain PLC obtaining very good ability to pay short term debts.

Quantitative Research Book

Chapter One

BASICS OF TECHNICAL WRITING AND THESIS WRITING

This chapter will focus on the mechanics on how to develop a thesis and made simple for easy understanding of the processes. Many students are confronted with tasks that demand good writing skills. They need guidance on haw to go about the complex job of writing a thesis or dissertation. This chapter presents as a Guide for students.

Thesis Writing is subsumed under Technical Writing. All professional fields require technical documents that help readers perform tasks and understand specific tasks. As mentioned by some authors, thesis is classified under technical writing as it provides vital information to specific readers.

Technical Writing refers to the provision of specific information to clearly identified readers who will use the information for a specific purpose.

KEY FEATURES OF TECHNICAL WRITING

Three Elements of Technical Writing.

The elements are reader, purpose and writing situation. The reader seeks information for a specific purpose. The purpose is to design a document that will serve the reader's need and help the reader understand the information efficiently. The writing situation consist of both reader and purpose, as well as such factors as the sponsoring organization's size, budget, ethics, deadlines, policies, competition and priorities.

Three General Stages of Technical Writing.

The stages are planning, multiple drafting and revising and editing. Planning- a writer analyzes the reader, purpose and writing situation; gathers information and tentatively organizes the document. All these may recur many times during the writing.

Revising and editing- it takes place throughout the writing process but particularly after you have begun drafting, read your draft and rethink the following elements: content- do you need more facts? Are your facts relevant for the reader and purpose? Organization- have you grouped the information into topics? Have you put the details in an order that readers will find easy to understand and use? Headings- have you written descriptive headings that will guide your readers to specific information?, opening- does your opening establish the document purpose and introduce the main topic? and closings­ does your closing provide a summary, offer recommendations or suggest actions?, graphic aids- do you have enough visual aids to understand the data'? are 'they appropriate?, language- have you used appropriate language? too much technical jargon? have you define terms your readers may not know? and reader usability- can your readers understand and use the information effectively? does the document format help your reader find specific information? After you are satisfied, then the final editing will focus on the form and style like grammar, punctuation's ... and others. and finally proof reading.

Types of Technical Writing.

This section would like to convey the different types of technical writing in comparison to writing a thesis. Testing these documents through the elements of writing: the reader, purpose and situation The diversity in technical writing is there no matter what our jobs are, we will have to communicate our technical knowledge to others both inside and outside the organization.

Conventional Reports/Project Ideas/Research Ideas- These reports may be written as informal memos, letters, or long formal documents,

Executive Summary Report. It is a longer synopsis of one or two pages that provides a more comprehensive overview than an abstract. Its purpose is to cover main points, conclusions, recommendations and the impact of the subject. Readers use these synopses to orient themselves to the main topics in a report before reading it completely. It looks like a miniature report. It is difficult to write because they require summarizing in a few words what a report covers in many pages. It should stand alone for readers who don't intend to read the full text of the report. Example: The organization needs the Renovation/Redesigning of a Hotel. Here are suggested information to be included: background of the situation, major topics, significant details, major conclusions or results, recommendations and a discussion how the subject can affect the organization.

Incident Report. It provides information about accidents, equipment breakdowns or any disruptive occurrence. Its purpose is to keep important records of an event that may use the report in legal actions if injury or damage has occurred. It aids mangers to help them prevent future accidents or disruptions. Example: The organization needs a report about an industrial fire, which recently took place. It should include the following informations: Description of the incidents, causes and recommendations.

Investigative Report. It analyzes data and seeks to answer to why something happens, how it happens or what would happen under certain conditions. Its purpose is to summarize the relevant data, analyzes the meaning of the data and assesses the potential impact that the results will have on the organization or on specific research questions. The sources of the data can include field studies, surveys, observation and tests of products, people, opinions or events both inside and outside the laboratory. Example: The organization needs a report on an Airplane Crash. It should include: the introduction, the methods used in the investigations, the results, the discussion or interpretation of results and their conclusions.

Progress Report. It is also called the Status Report. It informs readers about the project that is not completed. Its purpose is to provide information and it records the project events for readers who are not involved in-day to- day operations. Example: Dam Repair Project. It should include an introduction, work completed, work remaining, adjustments/problems and conclusions.

Trip Report. It provides a record of a business trip or visit to the field. Its purpose is a useful record both for the person who made the trip and for the decision-makers that need information about the subjects discussed during the trip. It records all significant information gathered either from meetings or from direct observations. Example: A trip report on a training system for a new, complicated software package. The report should contain an introductory section, information section and conclusions and recommendations.

Training Design. It's a project idea informing the reader on how a training could be implemented. Its purpose is to further explain the different activities to be taken up in a training program. Example: A Seminar Workshop on Project Development. It should contain: Title of the Training, Training Venue, Duration of the Training, the sponsor of the training, Schedule/Activities, Evaluation Schemes, Methodology Management Team and Estimated Budget.

Project Proposal. It suggests new ways to respond to specific company or organization situations, or they suggest specific solutions to identified problems. It may be internal (written by employee to readers within the company) or external (written from one company to another or from an individual to an organization). The purpose is to suggest a solution to a company problem. It persuades readers that it is practical, efficient and cost effective and suits company or research goals. Example: Safety methods of installing portable generators during rain storms. This should include information's on: the problem, proposed solutions, needed equipment/personnel, schedules, budget; evaluation system, expected benefits and summary/conclusions.

Feasibility Study. It provides information to decision makers about the practicality and potential success of several alternative solutions to a problem. Its purpose is to identify all reasonable options and prepares a report that evaluates cost, reliability, time constraints, and organization goals. It provides the information necessary to make an informed choice among alternatives. Example: Relocation of a company to a new city. Information to be included is: introduction, comparison of alternatives, conclusions and recommendations.

Thesis Writing. It is a scholarly made technical report because logical and intensive research is undertaken. It provides information to readers about a topic which are based on theories and later translated into practical application or action intervention to organizations, groups or individual concerns. Example: “A Study on the Leadership Behaviors and Development Performance of Municipal Mayors: An Assessment"

KEY FEATURES OF THESIS WRITING

Definition of a Thesis

A Thesis is an idea or theory that is expressed as a statement, a contention for which evidence is gathered and discussed logically (Anderson and Poole, 1998). It normally represents the culmination of a substantial piece of original work over a period of at least one year.

Purpose of a Thesis

A Thesis involves an academic study, experiment, invention, or development of a (formula, application, methodology, theory, idea, etc ... ) It is considered to be an original or a major enhancement to the existing one. The Thesis must include a literature survey providing background on, the past and recent developments on the thesis subject. It is conducted to replicate previous research or testing the relevance of findingd of research completed in a different milieu. Other research builds on existing studies to follow up new leads or to redefine or qualify the findings of earlier studies. The thesis is expected to make an original contribution to knowledge.

Thesis writing is a demanding and challenging work for students as it unfolds and is gratifying once it is finished. It is a tough test for intelligence and endurance.

The Research Process.

             

The Research Wheel

Steps of the Research Process. It involves the following process:

1. Empirical Observation - the entry points is an infinite array of possible topics.

2. Proposition - the inductive logic serves to relate specific topic to a broader context and begins with hunches" I wonder if'. Developed proposition are established relationships, it exist within a conceptual/theoretical framework.

3. Conceptual Framework- it consist of statements that link abstract concepts to empirical data. A Theory allows us to move from observation to observation and make sense of similarities and differences.

4. Research Questions and Hypothesis - basing from the conceptual framework, the questions and hypothesis could be formed.

5. Data Collection - this refers to the gathering of information relevant to the subject under study.

6. Data Analysis - data collected are analyzed and the results/findings are interpreted as bases for further action and decision making.

Nature and Limitations of a Thesis.

Authorities have reached no absolute agreement regarding details of form in thesis writing. In a any particular situation, several forms may be acceptable. Some universities require students to follow special forms quite different from those elsewhere. An example: A department of sociology at the same university requires students to use a particular referencing technique that would not be acceptable to the department of history at the same university. Regardless of a particular system adapted, the students may have the option to choose which ever is applicable in their study.

PRACTICAL GUIDE IN THE SELECTION OF A THESIS TOPIC

Criteria in Choosing a Thesis Title.

The following are some recommended criteria in the selection of a title: Using personal experience for topic discovery -reflect on your personal experiences for a topic that touches your life-style or career; Talking with others to find a subject - talk with other people because collaborative learning can broaden your vision of the issues. Speculating about your subject to discover ideas - speculate about the subject and discover ideas by listing issues, asking questions, free writing and other techniques.

Three Demands for a Research Paper

It must examine a significant issue; It must address a knowledgeable reader and carry that reader to another plateau of knowledge; It must have a serious purpose, one that demands analysis of the issues, argues from a position, and explains complex details.

Characteristics of a Good Thesis Research Problem

According to (Anderson, 1990), there are ten important characteristics of a good research problem for a thesis:

The Problem can be stated clearly and concisely. It is tested by writing into a concise sentence or paragraph and to share it with others; The problem generates research questions. It refers to the formulation of specific questions which represents the various aspects of the problem; It is grounded in theory. Good problems have theoretical and or/conceptual frameworks for their analysis. It relates to the specifics of what is being investigated to a more general background of theory which helps the results and link it to the field; It relates to one or more academic disciplines. It should be based on disciplines like sociology, psychology or management science to have clear links to one or two disciplines; It has a base in the research literature. It often relates to a well defined body of literature written by a selected group and published in journals to establish connections; It has potential significance or importance. The problem must have importance to the researcher and the others as well; It is do-able within the time frame and budget. Logistic factors are needed to carry out the thesis; Sufficient data are available or can be obtained. Data to address the problem should be accessible. There may be some restrictions on the environment and some other factors; The researcher's methodological strengths can be applied to the problem. Some problems are related to standard methodology. The researcher should have the inclination towards the methodology to be used; The problem is new; it is not already answered sufficiently. Ones the field is known, it becomes clear what has been done and what needs to be done.

Chapter Two

PRELIMINARIES OR FRONT MATTERS

This chapter presents the chronological Parts of a Thesis and its Contents. It would contain the title page, approval sheet, executive summary, abstract, acknowledgments, table of contents, list of tables and list of figures.

THE PRELIMINARIES OR FRONT MATTER OF A THESIS

This is the front matter of the thesis. It includes the following:

Thesis Title Page.

It is usually the first page of the Thesis It includes the following: Title: It should be a concise statement of the main topic and should identify the actual variables or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between them. It should be fully explanatory when standing alone. The recommended length for a title is from 10 to 12 words. It is centered at the top third of the page. Most universities and colleges have their own style of title page for theses, and this should follow exactly in matters of content, capitalization, centering and spacing.Author's name and institutional affiliation: The preferred author's name is first name, middle initial and last name because this reduces the likelihood of mistaken identity. Use the same fonn for publication throughout your career; that is, do not use initials on one manuscript and the full name on a later one. Determining whether Laura A. Lintao is the same person as L. A. Lintao, or L. Lintao can be difficult, particularly when citations span several years and institutional affiliations change. The affiliation identifies the location where the author conducted the investigation, which is usually an institution. It is centered at the middle of the page; name, title and company/school of the writer, centered at the bottom third of the page and date of the research/report, centered directly below the writer's name. The title page is not listed in the table of contents but it is counted as page i.

ii. Committee Approval Sheet.

It is the page where the members of the Committee of the Oral Defense sign and where the rating of the thesis is to be indicated.

iii An Executive Summary.

It would enable the readers to view the entire thesis work at a glance in one page (in two or more pages in spreadsheet form). It consist of three main parts namely: thesis problem, research methodology and Results. The thesis problem must consist of the situation and the research problem. The situation presents in brief the global reality, national reality and the local reality in relation to the study. The research problem presents the research objecties, the research questions and hypotheses. The research methodology should mention briefly the conceptual framework of the study (in graphic format). It shows the independent and dependent variables, research methods used, target population and sample respondents, sampling procedures, data collection procedures and statistical treatment of data. The Results should include the summary findings, conclusions and recommendations.

iv. An Abstract.

It is a brief: comprehensive summary of the contents of the study. It allows readers to survey the contents of a study quickly. A well-prepared abstract can be the most important paragraph of the study. It is a synopsis of the most important points in a report and provides readers with a preview of the full contents. It can be specified in 200 words. It can be either be descriptive or informative. A descriptive abstract names the topics covered in a research without revealing details about those topics while informative abstract is frequently used for formal reports and technical articles, describes the major subjects in the report and summarizes the conclusions and recommendations. It includes more details and gives a more complete synopsis of the report contents than the descriptive does. It consists of a short statement of the problem, a brief description of the methods and procedures adopted and a condensed summary of the findings of the study.

v. Acknowledgments.

Citations accorded to the persons who in one way or another had helped in the realization of the study. This includes names of individuals or companies/agencies whom the researcher was indebted to such as reading materials, facilities used or financial support to the researcher.

vi. Table of Contents.

It alerts the reader to pages that contain specific topics, the overall organization and content of the research and specific and supplemental materials such as appendixes. All front matter for a thesis paper is numbered in small Roman numerals. The first page of the thesis proper is numbered as page 1 in Arabic numbers, and all pages after will have Arabic numbers.

vii. List of Tables.

The list of tables appears directly after the list of figures. List each table by number and title and indicate page numbers. In a list of tables, the table numbers (in Arabic, followed by a period) are placed in a column flush left under the heading "Table," and the page numbers are listed flush right under the heading "Page." The table titles should begin two spaces after the period following the table number and should agree exactly with the wording of the titles as they appear above the tables themselves. The titles are capitalized in either sentence or headline style, and run over lines are indented three spaces. Double -space between items, single-space within.

viii. List of Figures.

Any graphic aid, such as bar graph, map or flowchart that is not a table with numbers or words in columns is called a figure. The list of figures follows the table of contents. List each figure by both number and title and indicate page numbers. The figure numbers in tile list are aligned by their periods under the word "Figure" and page numbers are listed flush right under the word "Page," Captions are capitalized headline syle.

Chapter Three

GENERALIES OF THE STUDY

The following are the suggested parts and contents of the Thesis as outlined below: A few form and style was introduced (such as center and side headings) to guide the readers how to go on into the formulation of the different chapters of the thesis.

CHAPTER 1

GENERALITIES OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction of the Study

In paragraph form this section includes the following information: 1. Global Context ­this portion describes the situation associated in the global context of the study, in general the world situation. How does your study link with the current problems of today. does the research focus on groups, organization or an individual. 2. National Context - state how the" country or nation is currently experiencing the present problem which your study has some kind of relatedness. 3. Local Context- state how the study relates or relevance to the area in focus. 4. Overview/history of the Organization (subject of the study)- make brief statements for the company; it should also include in brief some information on the main topics of the study of which the organization is a focus.

1.2 Research Objectives

In paragraph form, this refers to the general objective of the study, It simply indicates the intent or purpose why the study is conducted. It must be stated in declarative sentences or in operational terms what the research sought to achieve: what to find out?

to determine ... , to identify ... ,to assess .... Follow the SMART Formula. SMART means S-specific, M-measurable, A-attainable, R-realistic and T- time bounded.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

In question form, the research must have an explanatory basis. It should contain a brief summary of the conceptual underpinnings of the proposed research. This section calls for very specific questions to be answered based from the objectives. It is the most critical part as it seeks to ask what are the researchable areas of the study. It must be stated in interrogative sentences or statements. In one major question, it can have two or more follow-up questions. The questions should synchronized with the variables as presented in the conceptual framework.

1.4 Scope of the Research

 In paragraph form, include the following information: Topic in focus- state the different main variables of the study. State what are the main independent and dependent variables; Target respondents- state who are your main respondents. Are they Managers? Employees? or Middle Managers? The area in focus- refers to the coverage of the study whether it is nationwide, regional or provincial or district wide where the subjects can be located.

1.5 Limitations of the Research

It implies limitations on the research design that you have deliberately imposed. It restricts the population to which the results of the study can be generalized. Limitations refer to the restrictions over which you have no control. The extent/or magnitude to which the study as to what topics or concerns. What can not be done ... or to be done.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This part should explain what is the relevance or usefulness of the study. Who would be benefited. What importance does it generates for certain individual, groups or organization. It would address the 3 W's (what, who and why) plus how?

1.7 Definition of Terms

This section would inform us about terms, which are either in operational terms or literal meanings to express clarity and correct understanding of some terms not familiar with the readers. It should contain a brief and concise definitions about two or three sentences. It should define all terms, which are presented in the conceptual framework. and other relevant terms included in the discussion of the text.

Chapter Four

REVIEW OF LITERATURE RELATED AND STUDIES

This chapter will discuss the different parts and contents of chapter 2 of the thesis. The following are outlined which provides a context for proposed study and demonstrates why it is important and timely. It needs to clarify the relationship between the proposed study and previous work conducted on the topic. It can assume that you form a dialogue between you and the reader. To challenge effectively, you could ask, "What is your point here? So what? You could answer "yes" this is the exact study to be done at this time to move knowledge in this field or little further along the same subject.

It is a coherent argument that leads to the description of a proposed study. According to the Venn Diagram, collect literature and studies which are very relevant, relevant and background literature and studies as related to your study. It includes both foreign and local literature and studies. It would show or build arguments either the study has similar observations or results; it would also contrast or argue on some points with respect to some literature or studies which was conducted by various writers, academicians or practitioners.

Words that describes similarities/differences are: supports, presents, confirmed, illustrates, shares, positive relationships, revealed, pointed, argued, concluded, negative relationships and contrasting results. It is necessary to show how the problem under investigation relates to previous research studies. It is important to locate the problem within a theoretical framework and in such cases the theory' needs to be reviewed as well. It would give the researcher a wider range of ideas as to similarities in the studies, which will contribute to the conceptualization of the research paradigm. This chapter should include the following information:

Chapter Five

RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS

The chapter will discuss the topics of Research Frameworks, the theoretical framework, the conceptual framework, research hypothesis and operationalization of the variables. This chapter of the thesis will include the following:

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS

Brief introduction of the chapter- in a paragraph form, specify what would be the content of this chapter.

3.1 Theoretical Framework

The Theoretical Framework refers to the theories being used as a basis or reference for the study which are drawn from the literature. The big ideas of the authors or theorist, experts and specialist. It is the big map of ideas in global terms.

A framework is a model, which allow the researcher to explore the relationship of variables in a logical and prescribed fashion. It clarifies questions and it summarizes the overall concept being investigated

It should include the following information: Link here the theories and studies which you patterned your conceptual framework; Show specific models which you think most of the variables are taken; Write the main variable and its sub variables and summarized the authors plus year whose theory is included.

3.2 Conceptual Framework

It is the specific map of ideas of your topic or study. In here, the researcher has to explain the research framework (model) together with the explanation of the variables. It

is a framework which students designed/ conceptualized for the specific needs and issue of the study. The development of a suitable framework is part of a process of planning and clarifying the research problem and conducting the analysis.

There are different kinds of frameworks which are popularly used by research students: One - dimensional framework. The starting point for the research is often the formulation of a one-dimensional framework. Most common was the pre-test-post test experiment. Something is measured before an educational intervention and again afterwards. Another example: Input-process-output model. It is popularly known as the Black box model; Two-dimensional frameworks. It permits analysis of the interrelationships between sets of related variables. It is formed by dividing the data sample into groups with same characteristics. It would suggest various types of inputs, which bear logical relationships to components of institutional development; The Logical Framework Analysis (LFA) Design. It is a design used by USAID. It provides a structure for project planning and evaluation research. ·It is essentially a planning and evaluation model which contains 16 cells ( 4 x 4 table). The rational part of the model is its Logic. The various cells are interrelated in the vertical dimension and also interrelated horizontally; Another type was the Logical Framework Analysis type designed by the Germans. It is also based on logic. It shows the rational or logical way of analyzing problems through the "decision tree model" It shows the cause and effect relationship of things. The causes are the independent variables and the effect is the dependent variables. The path analysis and three some variable frameworks are also other frameworks to choose from for any suitable kind of study.

This part of the thesis is the most vital and critical part as this will form the basis of the conceptual part of the research.

A research paradigm can be conceptualized as patterned from the theoretical framework. Example: A study on the leadership behavior and development performance of the Expatriates in Thailand.

It should include the following information: Present your conceptual framework showing the independent and dependent variables; Discuss in brief the main variables and sub-variables and which theoy are they patterned.

3.3 Research Hypothesis

A Hypothesis is a claim or statement either about a value of a single population characteristics or about the values of several characteristics.

A test of hypothesis is a method for deciding which of the two contradictory claims is the correct one. In carrying out a test, we initially assume that a particular one of the two is the correct one. This claim will be rejected in favor of the second (alternative) claim if sample evidence is incompatible with the initial assumption.

The null hypothesis, denoted by Ho, is the claim that is initially assumed to be true. The other hypothesis is referred as the alternative hypothesis and is denoted as Ha. In carrying out a test of Ho versus Ha, the hypothesis Ho will be rejected in favor of Ha only if sample evidence strongly suggests that Ho will not be rejected.

How are hypothesis stated? Hypothesis should synchronize with those asked in the statement of the problems particularly focusing on the relationship of variables.

It should include the following information: List all the statements/hypotheses which you wanted to prove in the study. Which hypothesis should be tested? There are only two hypotheses that can be statistically tested-the hypothesis of difference and the hypothesis of association. Whenever the research is experimental, then the hypothesis of difference is the one that must be tested. This hypothesis states that the populations from which the sample groups have been selected are in some way different from each other. If however the research is post facto, then the hypothesis under scrutiny might be one of either difference or association; The hypothesis of association states that a correlation exists in the population from which the sample has been selected. The correlation may exist between different measures taken on the same group of Subjects (for example, a single group of subjects being measured on both height and weight) or between the same measure taken on different subjects (for example, obtaining IQ scores from pairs of identical twis). Testing the hypothesis of association requires different statistical tests than does testing the hypothesis of difference.

If the Hypothesis of Difference has been tested, are the samples independent or correlated? Whenever the hypothesis of difference is tested, whether in experimental or post facto research, it must clearly determined whether the sample groups are independent or correlated. If the selection of one sample is in no way influenced by the selection of another, then the samples are independent. This occurs when each sample is randomly selected. If on the other hand, the subjects to be measured are in any way paired oft: either by using the same subject more than once or by equating subjects on the basis of some relevant variable then the groups are correlated. Attempting to isolate differences between correlated sample measures requires different statistical tests than when analyzing differences between independent sample measures.

3.4 Operationalization of the Independent and Dependent Variables

It should include the following information: Give an example how to translate into action your different sub-variables for the main independent variable. (in statement form similar to that of the questionnaire); Give an example how to translate into action your different sub-variables for the main dependent variable. (in satement form similar to that of the questionnaire).

Safety Issues in hazardous waste Management in Heavy Industries

Safety Issues in hazardous waste Management in Heavy Industries

This paper will examine the existing hazardous waste management systems of the heavy industries in Sri Lanka and safety issues that are influencing those practices. Further of this paper is to identify existing hazardous waste management facilities in Sri Lanka while evaluating the factors which positively and negatively influence the successful execution of those practices.

Existing literature regarding the factors which influence Hazardous waste management practices will be conducted. Influential factors that have been identified were Environmental law of Sri Lanka, technological factors, corporate policies of the company, public resistance, economical factors, integration between related institutes and informational factors. Environmental law of Sri Lanka will be considered as independent variable and its relationship with the existing hazardous waste management systems will be considered as the dependent variable.

Existing literature regarding the factors which influence Hazardous waste management practices will be conducted. Past literature on this paper area will provide the base for creating relationships between variables for this paper. Influential factors that have been identified were Environmental law of Sri Lanka, technological factors, corporate policies of the company, public resistance, economical factors, integration between related institutes and informational factors. Environmental law of Sri Lanka will be considered as independent variable and its relationship with the existing hazardous waste management systems will be considered as the dependent variable.

Fifty five heavy industries of the North Western Province will formulate the population for this paper out of which a sample of 40 industries will be chosen. Environmental officer from each company will be handed over a questionnaire. Interviews will be conducted in order to gather primary data whereas secondary data will be gathered by the use of government publications and empirical studies done on this research area